A pet trust ensures that your companion animal receives the care and resources you intend if you become unable to provide for them or after you pass away. Creating a pet trust involves naming a caregiver, appointing a trustee to manage funds, and setting out clear instructions about daily care, medical decisions, and long-term arrangements. In Rolling Hills and throughout Los Angeles County you can use a trust to protect your pet’s welfare while avoiding the uncertainty of informal verbal promises. Thoughtful planning helps avoid disputes and makes transitions smoother for both your pet and the people who will care for them.
This page explains how a pet trust works in California, how it interacts with other estate planning documents like a pour-over will, and what to consider when choosing a caregiver and trustee. We outline the legal elements, common scenarios that make a pet trust desirable, and practical tips for drafting clear instructions and funding the trust. Whether you have one pet or multiple animals with special needs, a properly drafted pet trust can provide ongoing financial support, enforceable directions, and peace of mind that your animal companion will be looked after according to your wishes.
A pet trust provides a legally enforceable way to leave funds and instructions for the care of your animal companion, reducing the risk that money set aside for care will be misused. It identifies both a caregiver who will live with and care for the pet and a trustee who will manage the funds and provide oversight. This structure helps ensure continuity of care, allows you to specify medical and lifestyle preferences, and creates a formal mechanism for addressing contingencies such as a caregiver’s inability to continue. For many owners, a pet trust is the most reliable means of protecting a pet’s future.
The Law Offices of Robert P. Bergman provide estate planning services across California, including the creation and management of pet trusts in Rolling Hills and Los Angeles County. Our team handles a wide range of documents such as revocable living trusts, pour-over wills, powers of attorney, advance health care directives, and trust funding instruments. We focus on practical solutions tailored to each client’s circumstances, helping you choose the right combination of documents to protect your animals and assets. You can reach the office at 408-528-2827 to discuss pet trust planning and related estate matters.
A pet trust is a legally recognized arrangement that dedicates funds and instructions for the care of an animal after an owner’s incapacitation or passing. In California, statutes permit the creation of trusts for the benefit of one or more animals, with provisions for appointment of a trustee and a caregiver. The trustee holds and manages the funds while the caregiver provides day-to-day care. The trust document should outline routine care, medical needs, living arrangements, and contingencies for replacement caregivers. Clear drafting reduces ambiguity and increases the likelihood that your wishes will be followed as intended by both trustees and caregivers.
A pet trust typically works alongside other estate planning tools such as a pour-over will that directs property to your trust upon death. Funding the trust can involve transferring cash, securities, or other assets into trust ownership or using beneficiary designations and pour-over provisions to ensure resources are available. The trustee has fiduciary duties to use the funds for the pet’s care, and the trust can include oversight mechanisms to prevent misuse. You should consider factors such as anticipated costs, the expected lifespan of the pet, and whether a pet has special medical or behavioral needs when designing the trust.
A pet trust is a legal document that names a trustee to hold assets and a caregiver to care for your pet according to written instructions. The trust sets forth how funds will be used, the timing and manner of distributions, and specific care guidelines covering food types, medical treatment preferences, daily routines, and end-of-life considerations. It may also include backup caregivers, procedures for relocation, and restrictions on how funds may be spent. The clarity and specificity of the trust terms are critical to ensuring that both the trustee and caregiver understand and can carry out your intentions for the pet’s ongoing welfare.
Key elements of a pet trust include the identification of the pet or pets covered, appointment of a caregiver, appointment of a trustee, funding mechanisms, and express instructions for care and medical decisions. The process begins with gathering information about the animal’s needs, selecting appropriate individuals to act as caregiver and trustee, and determining how much money is needed for day-to-day care, medical care, and contingencies. Drafting should also address contingencies, such as alternate caregivers and trustee removal procedures. Funding may be immediate or accomplished through a pour-over will at the time of death.
This glossary explains common terms used when creating a pet trust so you can better understand the documents and conversations that follow. Familiarity with these terms helps you make informed decisions about naming trustees, funding the trust, and drafting care instructions. Each term describes a role or mechanism used to carry out your wishes for your animal companion, and understanding their differences will assist in choosing which approach best matches your priorities for care, oversight, and flexibility.
A trustee is the person or entity responsible for managing the assets placed in the pet trust and ensuring funds are used in accordance with the trust terms. The trustee’s duties include investing trust assets prudently, making payments for veterinary care, boarding, grooming, and other identified expenses, keeping records, and communicating with the caregiver. The trustee does not typically provide daily hands-on care but acts as the financial steward. Good trustee selection balances trustworthiness, financial ability, willingness to administer the trust, and an understanding of the responsibilities involved.
The caregiver is the individual who assumes day-to-day responsibility for the pet’s welfare, including feeding, exercise, routine veterinary visits, and companionship. The caregiver’s role is distinct from the trustee’s financial duties; caregivers carry out the living arrangements and personal care that keep the pet comfortable and healthy. A caregiver should be someone who understands the pet’s temperament, medical needs, and routine preferences. The trust can include incentives and clear guidance to encourage the caregiver to follow the owner’s directions for long-term care.
Funding refers to the transfer of assets or the designation of resources to provide financial support for the pet trust. This can include cash transfers, account beneficiary designations, titling assets in the name of the trust, or using a pour-over will so that assets are transferred upon death into a trust established for the pet. Proper funding ensures the trustee has adequate resources to cover veterinary care, food, boarding, and unforeseen expenses. A funding plan should estimate the pet’s projected needs and include a margin for inflation and emergency medical care.
A pour-over will is a will that directs assets to be transferred into an existing trust upon the testator’s death. For pet trusts, a pour-over will can ensure that any assets not earlier moved into the trust during the owner’s lifetime still end up available for the trustee to manage for the pet’s benefit. While a pour-over will is helpful, it still requires probate administration for the assets it covers, which may cause delays before funds are available. Therefore, combining immediate funding with pour-over provisions can provide both immediate support and backup funding.
Owners have several options for arranging care for their pets, including informal agreements with friends or family, naming a caregiver in a will, making gifts to a caregiver, or creating a formal pet trust. Informal agreements rely on goodwill and may not be enforceable. Naming a caregiver in a will without funding can leave them unable to cover costs. A pet trust balances instructions and enforceable funding. Another option is gifting the pet itself and relying on contractual arrangements, but those can lack the protections and oversight a trust provides. Evaluating these choices depends on desired enforceability, oversight, and funding needs.
A limited approach may be suitable when temporary or short-term arrangements will meet a pet’s needs, such as a planned move, temporary travel, or a short period when the owner lacks the ability to care for the pet. If family or a close friend has already agreed to assume responsibility and there are minimal financial obligations, a simple written letter of instruction and an informal transfer of supplies and funds could be enough. It is important to document the arrangement and ensure the caregiver has access to necessary records and resources to avoid confusion during the transition.
An informal plan may suffice when the designated caregiver is willing to assume care without financial compensation and has the means to do so. If your animal is healthy and has predictable, low-cost needs, then a brief written agreement identifying the caregiver and transferring important documents can work. However, without formal funding or oversight, there is a risk the arrangement could change over time. Whenever relying on an informal solution, it helps to keep clear records and communicate expectations to reduce misunderstandings and preserve the pet’s continuity of care.
Comprehensive planning becomes important when pets require ongoing financial support, ongoing medical care, or when the owner wants to ensure long-term stability. A formal pet trust provides a reliable funding source, mechanisms for oversight, and procedures for replacing caregivers or trustees when necessary. It reduces the likelihood that funds will be used for other purposes and ensures that the pet’s needs are addressed consistently over time. For animals with chronic medical conditions or anticipated high expenses, a structured trust is often the most dependable method of ensuring continuous care.
A comprehensive pet trust allows owners to include enforceable instructions and oversight provisions, such as requiring accounting by the trustee, specifying permissible expenses, and naming alternate caregivers. These features reduce the risk that your wishes will be ignored or misinterpreted. Oversight can be tailored to your preferences, balancing the caregiver’s autonomy with checks that funds are used appropriately. When enforcement and clarity are priorities, detailed trust provisions create a legal framework that supports reliable, long-term care for your pet.
A comprehensive pet trust delivers several important benefits, including clear direction for caregivers, financial resources managed by a trustee, and legal enforceability that helps ensure funds are used as intended. Detailed instructions reduce the risk of disputes and make it easier for caregivers to follow routines and medical plans. Trust terms can also provide for backup caregivers and contingencies, preventing uncertainty if the initial caregiver cannot continue. The result is a structured plan that protects the pet’s lifestyle, health care, and living arrangements for the duration of their needs.
Another key advantage is predictability: with a funded trust you can estimate ongoing care costs and provide for veterinary emergencies, boarding, and specialized treatments. The trustee’s role in overseeing funds reduces the burden on caregivers and provides accountability through recordkeeping and reporting requirements. A comprehensive plan also integrates with other estate documents to ensure seamless transfer of resources and simplify administration. Together, these features create a dependable framework that respects both your wishes and the practical realities of long-term animal care.
Financial protection is a central benefit of a pet trust because it ensures funds are set aside specifically for the pet’s care and cannot be diverted for other uses. The trustee manages those assets, disbursing money for veterinary care, food, grooming, boarding, and other documented needs. This separation of financial and caregiving roles helps prevent conflicts and allows the caregiver to focus on the pet rather than on handling large sums of money. Over time, structured financial planning helps maintain the pet’s quality of life and provides a clear mechanism for addressing expensive or unexpected medical treatments.
Detailed care instructions and contingency planning give caregivers a roadmap for day-to-day life as well as for unexpected situations. By documenting preferred veterinarians, dietary needs, medication schedules, exercise routines, and end-of-life preferences, the trust ensures that decisions align with the owner’s values. Naming alternate caregivers and specifying procedures for relocation or incapacity reduces the risk of gaps in care. These provisions also make transitions less stressful for the pet and the people involved, helping preserve continuity and providing a clear plan during difficult moments.
Selecting the right caregiver is one of the most important decisions when creating a pet trust. Choose someone who understands your pet’s temperament, routine, and medical needs, and discuss expectations clearly before naming them in the trust. Provide written instructions and contact information for your veterinarian, and ensure the caregiver is willing and able to accept the responsibilities involved. Consider naming an alternate caregiver in the event the primary caregiver cannot continue. Clear communication and documentation make it much easier for caregivers to step in when needed and follow your directions consistently.
Draft clear, detailed care instructions covering diet, exercise, medications, and preferred medical treatments, as well as routines and behavioral notes to help the caregiver maintain the pet’s quality of life. Include the contact information of your regular veterinarian and any emergency clinic you prefer, and specify whether you want certain procedures or treatments to be pursued. If you have end-of-life preferences, document them carefully. Detailed instructions reduce ambiguity and help both the caregiver and trustee make consistent decisions that reflect your intentions.
People choose pet trusts for many reasons, including wanting to ensure a smooth transition of care, providing funds for veterinary needs, and avoiding disputes over the pet’s future. Pet trusts give owners control over how and by whom their animals will be cared for, and they provide a formal mechanism for compensation and oversight of expenses. If you value predictability and want to reduce the likelihood of contested arrangements, establishing a trust can bring clarity and legal force to your plans, helping protect your animal companion long after you are gone.
A pet trust is also useful when owners have multiple animals with interdependent needs, pets with ongoing medical conditions, or limited family resources for care. It is particularly helpful if you live alone or if family members are not in a position to take immediate responsibility for your animals. The trust can define priorities, designate caregivers, and assign a trustee to manage funds, ensuring that the pet receives continuous care tailored to your specifications. This planning reduces stress for survivors who may otherwise face difficult choices without guidance.
Typical circumstances prompting a pet trust include advanced age or declining health of the owner, pets with special medical or behavioral needs, lack of immediate family able to care for the pet, and owners who want to leave specific instructions or funds. Other reasons include managing multiple animals, coordinating care for pets across households, and ensuring funds remain available for long-term boarding or specialized vet treatment. In each case, the trust provides a structured approach to ensure the pet’s needs are met without placing undue burden on caregivers or heirs.
When an owner is aging and lacks close family or a nearby support network, a pet trust can provide continuity of care and financial resources to support the animal over time. Naming a caregiver and trustee avoids relying on uncertain future arrangements and reduces the chance of the pet entering a shelter. The trust documents should identify backups and provide detailed care instructions so that those who step in have clear guidance, helping ensure the pet’s home life and medical needs remain stable even if the original arrangements must change.
Pets that require ongoing medications, specialized diets, frequent veterinary attention, or behavior management can create long-term obligations best handled through a formal plan. A pet trust allocates funds specifically for medical care, therapy, or specialized housing and allows the trustee to manage expenses on behalf of the caregiver. This planning helps ensure that necessary treatments continue without interruption and that caregivers are supported financially in meeting the pet’s unique needs, reducing the risk of inadequate care due to cost concerns.
Owners who wish to preserve a particular lifestyle for their pet, such as living in a home rather than a boarding facility, or who want specific travel and housing arrangements detailed, benefit from a trust that documents those preferences. The trust can require the caregiver to follow certain living arrangements and include funds for housing, transportation, and ongoing comforts. By setting out explicit instructions and funding, owners can help ensure their pet enjoys continuity in daily life consistent with the care they provided.
The Law Offices of Robert P. Bergman assist Rolling Hills residents with creating pet trusts and related estate planning documents. We help you choose caregivers and trustees, draft clear instructions, estimate funding needs, and coordinate funding methods like pour-over wills or account designations. Our practice covers all necessary documents such as revocable living trusts, pour-over wills, powers of attorney, and advance health care directives to align your overall plan. Call 408-528-2827 to schedule a discussion about securing your pet’s future and arranging care that matches your wishes.
Clients rely on our firm for thorough planning that reflects individual priorities for pet care. We focus on detailed drafting to ensure instructions are clear and enforceable and coordinate trust funding and related documents so resources are available when needed. Our approach is practical and personalized, designed to reduce ambiguity and create a durable plan for your animal companion. We explain options and trade-offs so you can make informed decisions about caregivers, trustees, and the level of funding required to meet anticipated needs.
We prepare a complete set of estate planning documents to complement a pet trust, including revocable living trusts, pour-over wills, powers of attorney, advance health care directives, and certifications of trust. This integrated approach simplifies administration and helps minimize delays in accessing funds. By addressing both the legal and practical aspects of care, the plan reduces stress on family and caregivers and creates a clear roadmap for the pet’s ongoing welfare. Our office will walk you through each step to ensure your goals are accurately reflected in the documents.
When appropriate we discuss funding strategies, trustee oversight mechanisms, and contingency plans such as backup caregivers or trustee replacement procedures. We provide guidance on reasonable funding amounts, documentation for veterinary care, and instructions for end-of-life decisions so your wishes are respected. Our goal is to create a practical, enforceable plan that addresses foreseeable issues while remaining flexible enough to adapt to changing circumstances, giving you confidence that your pet will be cared for according to your intentions.
Our process begins with an initial meeting to understand your pet’s needs, family situation, and financial resources. We gather medical and lifestyle information about the animal, discuss potential caregivers and trustees, and estimate funding requirements. Next, we draft the trust and related documents tailored to your instructions, review them with you for any adjustments, and finalize execution. We also provide guidance on funding the trust and coordinating with your broader estate plan to ensure that assets are available when they are needed for your pet’s care.
The first step is a thorough consultation to gather information about your pet, current care arrangements, and any existing estate planning documents. During this discussion we identify potential caregivers and trustees, review medical histories and anticipated needs, and discuss funding options. The goal is to create a clear picture of the pet’s daily routine, medical condition, and special preferences so the trust can be tailored to practical realities. This stage helps ensure that drafting accurately reflects the owner’s intent and the pet’s welfare requirements.
We collect detailed information about your pet’s daily routine, diet, exercise, medications, veterinary contacts, and any behavioral considerations. Understanding these details allows us to draft instructions that a caregiver can follow without ambiguity. We also discuss foreseeable medical needs and potential long-term care scenarios so funding estimates are realistic. Providing thorough background information at this stage reduces the need for later revisions and helps the caregiver and trustee carry out your directions precisely.
During the initial meeting we review available financial resources and discuss which assets should be used to fund the trust. We also evaluate and document potential caregivers and trustees, including alternates, and discuss compensation arrangements if applicable. This review helps determine whether immediate funding is needed or whether a pour-over will with backup funding is appropriate. Clear decisions about funding and personnel at this stage streamline the drafting process and improve the trust’s effectiveness in protecting the pet.
After gathering the necessary information we draft the pet trust alongside complementary estate planning documents such as a pour-over will, powers of attorney, and advance health care directive. The drafting process tailors the trust terms to your instructions, specifying care obligations, funding schedules, oversight mechanisms, and contingency plans. We ensure the language is clear, enforceable, and coordinated with your overall estate plan. Before finalization we review the documents with you and make any necessary adjustments to reflect changing preferences or new information.
We prepare a pet trust document that clearly identifies the pet or pets, names the trustee and caregiver, and sets forth precise instructions for use of trust funds. When appropriate we also draft a pour-over will that directs residual assets into the trust upon death so the trustee will have access to backup funds. The combination of immediate funding and pour-over provisions offers flexibility while ensuring resources are ultimately available to support your animal companion as intended.
We assist you in selecting a trustee and crafting care instructions that are practical and legally effective. The trustee’s powers and reporting obligations are spelled out, and the caregiver’s responsibilities and compensation are clarified. We include provisions for alternate caregivers, conditions for trustee removal, and guidelines for accounting and oversight. Thoughtful drafting at this stage creates a functional plan that coordinates caregiving responsibilities with financial management, minimizing disputes and facilitating consistent care for your pet.
Once documents are finalized, we coordinate signatures, notarization, and witness requirements to make the trust legally valid. Funding the trust is an important final step, and we advise on the most appropriate methods to ensure assets are available when needed. After execution, we recommend periodic review to update instructions, caregivers, trustees, and funding levels as circumstances change. Ongoing review helps maintain the plan’s effectiveness and preserves the care arrangements you intend for your pet.
Execution involves signing the trust and related documents in accordance with California legal requirements, often including notarization and witness signatures. Proper execution ensures the trust will be recognized and enforced when necessary. We also prepare certificates of trust or other documentation as needed so the trustee can present proof of authority to veterinarians or boarding facilities. Formalizing the trust reduces friction when funds or decisions are needed for the pet’s welfare.
Funding the trust may involve transferring accounts, retitling assets, or naming the trust as beneficiary where permitted. We coordinate the transfer of assets and provide guidance on recordkeeping and ongoing oversight by the trustee. Periodic reviews are recommended to confirm funding levels remain sufficient as costs change. Clear reporting and communication between trustee and caregiver ensure that funds are used appropriately and that the pet’s care remains aligned with your initial instructions over time.
A pet trust is a legal arrangement that designates funds and instructions for the future care of your animal companion, appointing a trustee to manage money and a caregiver to provide day-to-day care. In California, pet trusts are recognized by statute and can be drafted to cover one or more animals, specifying everything from diet and veterinary care to housing and replacement caregivers. The trust document outlines how funds will be used, who is responsible for care, and mechanisms for oversight to help ensure your wishes are followed. The trustee holds and disburses funds in accordance with the trust’s terms while the caregiver handles the pet’s daily needs. The trust can be revocable or irrevocable depending on your preferences, and it often works in coordination with other estate planning tools like a pour-over will, which can funnel residual assets into the trust after probate. Careful drafting and funding help make sure resources are available when the caregiver needs to pay for services or care.
Determining how much to leave in a pet trust depends on the pet’s expected lifetime expenses, including food, routine veterinary visits, preventive care, medications, grooming, and potential emergency treatments. Consider the animal’s age, any chronic conditions, and the likely cost of specialized care. It is also wise to build in a buffer for inflation and unexpected events so the caregiver and trustee are not left without sufficient funds. A practical approach is to estimate annual costs and multiply by the pet’s anticipated remaining years, adding an emergency reserve. When in doubt, discuss estimates with your veterinarian and the trustee to arrive at a reasonable amount. The trustee’s oversight will help ensure funds are used appropriately and last as long as necessary to meet the pet’s needs.
Choose a caregiver who is willing and able to provide the daily living arrangements and direct care your pet requires, someone familiar with the pet’s routine and temperament. The caregiver should be prepared to accept the responsibility and have the time, space, and willingness to accommodate your animal. Naming an alternate caregiver is also important in case the primary caregiver becomes unavailable. The trustee should be someone who can responsibly manage funds, maintain records, and make payments for the pet’s needs. This might be a trusted friend, family member, or a professional fiduciary. The trustee and caregiver can be different people so caregiving duties and financial oversight are kept separate. Discussing roles in advance helps ensure both parties understand expectations and can coordinate effectively.
Whether you can change or revoke a pet trust depends on how it is established. A revocable pet trust can be amended or revoked by the creator during their lifetime, allowing flexibility to update caregivers, funding, or instructions as circumstances change. An irrevocable trust, by contrast, is generally not changeable once executed without consent or court approval. Discussing your objectives with counsel during the planning stage helps determine which form best matches your need for flexibility versus permanence. Even with a revocable trust, it is wise to periodically review and update documents to reflect changes in your pet’s condition, caregiver availability, or financial situation. Regular reviews ensure the trust remains effective and aligned with current wishes, and they reduce the likelihood of disputes or logistical issues when the trust must be administered.
Funding a pet trust can be accomplished in several ways, such as transferring cash or securities into the trust during your lifetime, retitling assets in the trust’s name, or naming the trust as a beneficiary of certain accounts. Another common solution is using a pour-over will that transfers assets into the trust upon your death. Careful coordination of asset transfers and beneficiary designations helps ensure funds will be available when the trustee needs to disburse them for the pet’s care. Immediate funding provides quicker access to resources, while pour-over provisions serve as a backstop in case some assets are not transferred before death. It is important to document transfers clearly and to consult with a planner to ensure the funding method aligns with your overall estate plan and tax considerations. The trustee needs clear authority and access to funds to address both routine and emergency expenses for the pet.
A pet trust can reduce the need for probate to access funds when properly funded during life, because assets already titled in the trust are available to the trustee outside the probate process. However, assets that are not transferred into the trust before death but instead pass via a pour-over will or beneficiary designations may still need probate administration before being placed under the trustee’s control. Proper funding during life is the most effective way to minimize probate delays in accessing resources for your pet. Even when probate is necessary for certain assets, a well-crafted trust and coordinated estate plan can streamline the process. Working with counsel helps determine which assets to move into the trust and how to use beneficiary designations or account titling to ensure the trustee has access to funds when the pet needs care without undue delay.
If a caregiver can no longer care for your pet, the trust should name alternate caregivers and outline the steps the trustee should take to relocate the pet and transfer responsibilities. Provisions can specify how the trustee is to select a replacement caregiver and what criteria to use, such as similarity of living arrangements or proximity to the pet’s current home. Including a clear succession plan reduces disruption and helps the trustee act quickly and decisively in the pet’s best interests. The trust can also provide guidance on temporary care arrangements while a permanent solution is arranged, and it can allocate funds for boarding or veterinary care during transitions. The trustee’s oversight and accounting duties help ensure resources are used appropriately to secure consistent, quality care for the pet during any change in caregiving.
Yes, you can include end-of-life instructions in a pet trust to communicate preferences regarding medical interventions, hospice care, or humane euthanasia. These directions should be written carefully and clearly to avoid ambiguity and to respect applicable laws and veterinary standards. Including the veterinarian’s contact information and any steps the caregiver should take under specific medical circumstances helps ensure decisions are made consistently with your values. Because these issues can be emotionally charged, it is helpful to discuss them in advance with your veterinarian and the chosen caregiver so everyone understands your wishes. The trust can also authorize the trustee to pay for certain end-of-life care expenses and define who should be consulted for final decisions, helping ensure the process honors your intentions while providing compassionate care for the animal.
A simple written note or informal agreement to a friend may work in very limited circumstances, such as when the friend is reliable, the pet’s needs are minimal, and there are no significant financial obligations. However, informal arrangements generally lack enforceability, oversight, and a funding mechanism, which can lead to confusion or disputes if circumstances change. Without a formal structure, there is a risk funds intended for the pet’s care will not be available or used as intended. For long-term or higher-cost care needs, or when you want clear, enforceable direction, a pet trust provides far more protection than a casual note. A trust can ensure both funding and legal authority are in place to support the caregiver and uphold your instructions. It also provides a mechanism for accountability through trustee reporting and oversight provisions.
A pour-over will is used to transfer any assets that were not placed into the trust during the owner’s lifetime into the trust at death, providing backup funding for the pet trust. The pour-over will itself typically must go through probate to transfer those assets into the trust, which can delay access to funds. For that reason, many owners combine immediate funding with a pour-over will so the trust has initial resources while the will serves as a safety net for overlooked assets. Using both immediate funding and a pour-over will balances flexibility and reliability. While immediate funding provides quick access to resources for the pet, the pour-over will ensures that remaining assets eventually end up in the trust. Coordination of these documents with beneficiary designations and account titling reduces the likelihood of probate-related delays and helps ensure funds are available when needed.
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