A Special Needs Trust can be a vital component of an estate plan for families caring for a loved one with disabilities. This page explains how a properly drafted trust can protect public benefits such as Supplemental Security Income and Medi-Cal while preserving resources for quality of life enhancements. At the Law Offices of Robert P. Bergman, we help residents of Lakeland Village and surrounding Riverside County neighborhoods understand their options, plan for long-term care, and design a trust that reflects family priorities. If you are considering a trust, this guide will walk you through definitions, benefits, and practical steps to move forward thoughtfully.
Planning for a person with disabilities involves more than documents; it requires thoughtful coordination of benefits, caregiving plans, and financial resources. Families often seek ways to ensure continued eligibility for means-tested programs while also providing for items and services that public benefits do not cover. This guide clarifies common trust types, trustee responsibilities, funding approaches, and the legal process in California. We also describe why a living planning conversation with a qualified attorney and careful documentation can reduce future family stress and protect your loved one’s access to essential supports and a better quality of life.
A Special Needs Trust provides a legal structure to hold assets for someone with disabilities without jeopardizing eligibility for government benefits. It allows families to direct funds for supplemental needs such as therapies, transportation, education, personal care items, and enrichment activities that benefit a beneficiary without displacing basic public assistance. By clearly defining allowable distributions and appointing a trustee to manage disbursements, the trust helps reduce conflicts, preserves public benefits, and offers peace of mind. Planning now can avoid probate delays, safeguard assets, and establish a durable plan for long-term support tailored to each family’s circumstances and goals.
The Law Offices of Robert P. Bergman serve families across California with comprehensive estate planning and trust services, including special needs planning. Our team works with clients to create customized documents such as revocable living trusts, wills, powers of attorney, advance health care directives, and the specific trust instruments needed for individuals with disabilities. We place emphasis on clear communication, careful documentation, and practical solutions that align with each family’s financial and caregiving goals. Serving San Jose and extending services to Riverside County residents, we strive to make planning accessible and responsive to client needs.
A Special Needs Trust is designed to hold resources for an individual with disabilities while preserving eligibility for public programs. These trusts are drafted so that distributions are used to supplement, not supplant, government benefits. A trustee administers the trust to pay for permitted items and services that improve quality of life. Funding may come from family gifts, settlements, inheritances, or transfers from a parent or other relative. Understanding the trust’s terms and how distributions interact with benefit rules is essential to maintaining eligibility and ensuring the beneficiary receives intended support without unintended consequences.
Special Needs Trusts come in several forms, including third-party trusts, first-party (self-settled) trusts, and pooled trusts. Third-party trusts are funded by someone other than the beneficiary and generally are not subject to Medicaid payback rules, while first-party trusts require a payback provision to the state upon the beneficiary’s death. Pooled trusts are managed by nonprofit organizations that pool resources for investment purposes while maintaining individual subaccounts. Each option has different implications for funding, control, and end-of-life distributions, so families should weigh the trade-offs based on financial and caregiving goals.
A Special Needs Trust is a legal arrangement that holds assets for a person with disabilities and provides funds for supplemental needs while preserving eligibility for need-based public benefits. The trust document sets out who may receive distributions, how funds can be used, and who manages the trust. Distributions should be for items or services beyond what government programs provide, such as adaptive equipment, recreation, transportation, or respite care. The trust can be created by a parent, guardian, conservator, or through a will or settlement, and it must be carefully drafted to comply with California and federal benefit rules.
Critical components of a special needs plan include selecting the type of trust, naming a trustee and successor trustee, identifying funding sources, and drafting distribution provisions that align with benefit rules. The process typically involves an initial consultation to gather medical and financial information, drafting the trust instrument, executing related estate planning documents, and transferring assets into the trust. Ongoing administration requires record-keeping, periodic reviews, and coordination with benefits administrators. Regular updates are important as benefits rules, family circumstances, and the beneficiary’s needs evolve over time.
Understanding common terms helps families make informed decisions. This glossary covers terms such as trustee, beneficiary, beneficiary payback, pooled trust, Medi-Cal, SSI, and complementary documents like powers of attorney. Knowing these definitions clarifies how trusts interact with public programs and guides choices about funding, trustee authority, and estate planning integration. Clear definitions also help when coordinating with financial advisors, caregivers, and government agencies to protect benefits while enhancing the beneficiary’s quality of life.
A Special Needs Trust, often abbreviated SNT, is a legal trust designed to hold assets for a person with disabilities so that those assets do not interfere with eligibility for public benefits. The trust’s terms designate how distributions are made for supplemental needs and name a trustee to manage the assets responsibly. SNTs can be funded by family resources, settlements, or inheritances, and they must be drafted to comply with Medi-Cal and Supplemental Security Income rules. Proper administration ensures funds are used to enhance the beneficiary’s life without reducing essential public benefits.
A trustee is the individual or entity responsible for managing trust assets and making distributions per the trust’s terms. The trustee’s duties include record-keeping, investing assets prudently, coordinating with benefits programs, and making decisions that uphold the beneficiary’s best interests. Trustees must understand how distributions affect public benefits and maintain documentation to justify discretionary payments. Choosing a trustee requires careful thought about financial management, availability, impartiality, and the ability to work cooperatively with family members and care providers.
First-party trusts are funded with assets belonging to the beneficiary and typically require a Medicaid payback to the state upon the beneficiary’s death. Third-party trusts receive funding from parents, relatives, or others and usually avoid payback obligations, allowing remaining assets to pass to other family members. Each type serves different planning goals and has distinct tax and benefits consequences. Choosing between them depends on the source of funds, long-term family objectives, and considerations about how leftover assets should be distributed after the beneficiary’s passing.
A pooled trust is an arrangement run by a nonprofit organization that combines funds from multiple beneficiaries for investment purposes while keeping separate subaccounts for each person. Pooled trusts accept funds from first-party and third-party sources and may be an option when a family prefers a pooled administrative structure rather than an individual trust. They can offer professional management and streamlined administration, but families should review fees, allowable distributions, and any requirements for payback to the state when considering this route.
When considering how to protect assets for a person with disabilities, families often compare third-party trusts, first-party trusts, pooled trusts, and simpler options such as wills and beneficiary designations. Each has trade-offs for control, funding flexibility, Medicaid payback, and ease of administration. Wills can direct assets into a trust at death but offer no protection while the grantor is living. Third-party trusts can preserve assets for other family members, while first-party trusts ensure benefits remain intact but require state payback provisions. Evaluating these options in light of family goals and public benefits is essential.
Families with modest assets and limited supplemental needs may choose more streamlined planning tools rather than a comprehensive trust. For instance, modest ongoing support can sometimes be provided through careful gifting practices and beneficiary designations that do not jeopardize basic benefits. A narrowly tailored plan may involve a simple third-party trust with clear distribution limitations or use of payeeship arrangements for benefit payments. The decision depends on whether the likely supplemental expenses justify the administrative complexity of a trust and whether family members are willing to manage distributions informally.
If a beneficiary’s public benefits are not at risk because the person’s income and resources already fall within program limits, families may opt for fewer legal interventions. In these situations, focus can shift to ensuring caregiver continuity, naming guardianship preferences, and executing basic estate documents like a will and powers of attorney. Even so, it is wise to plan for potential changes in financial circumstances that could affect benefits eligibility in the future. Periodic review can help ensure that minimal arrangements remain appropriate as needs evolve.
A comprehensive trust approach is often recommended when preserving access to means-tested programs like Medi-Cal and Supplemental Security Income is a priority while also ensuring the beneficiary can receive discretionary support. Detailed trust provisions and careful funding strategies can prevent unintended benefit disruptions. A full plan addresses successor trustees, contingency funding, disability accommodations, and integration with other estate planning documents. This level of planning reduces the risk of costly errors that could lead to loss of benefits or family disputes over asset use.
When a family expects large gifts, inheritances, or settlement proceeds, a more robust trust framework can protect the beneficiary’s benefits and provide a clear mechanism for managing and distributing funds. Comprehensive planning addresses how to accept and move funds into a trust, how to invest and spend them prudently, and how to plan for tax considerations and end-of-life distributions. A carefully drafted trust can prevent serious unintended consequences, protect the beneficiary, and ensure that family intentions are honored over time.
A well-structured trust provides stability by preserving eligibility for public benefits while enabling discretionary spending for items that enhance quality of life. It clarifies the trustee’s authority and the types of distributions that are appropriate, reducing family conflict and administrative uncertainty. The structure can also outline long-term financial management, successor trustees, and contingencies for changing needs. By combining trust provisions with complementary documents like powers of attorney and health care directives, a comprehensive plan supports coordinated decision-making and smoother transitions during life changes.
Comprehensive planning also offers flexibility to adapt as a beneficiary’s needs change, allowing for updated distribution guidelines, new funding sources, or changes in medical coverage. Regular review and revisions ensure that the trust remains aligned with current laws and family objectives. Additionally, integrating the trust with estate planning tools provides a cohesive legacy plan that can direct residual assets as intended, protect family relationships, and provide a clear roadmap for those who will manage care and finances in the future.
A primary benefit of a comprehensive trust is maintaining eligibility for crucial public benefits while enabling discretionary purchases that improve daily living and personal enrichment. With careful trustee guidance, trust funds can pay for therapies, assistive technology, enrichment activities, and other supports that are not covered by state programs. The trust can also address larger needs such as housing modifications or transportation. This dual protection gives families confidence that the beneficiary’s essential supports remain intact while still allowing for meaningful enhancements to their life.
Clear, written trust provisions and designated trustee responsibilities reduce uncertainty and potential family conflict about how resources should be used. A thoughtful trust document sets expectations for distributions, record-keeping, and communication with family members and care providers. It also provides a succession plan so that management continues smoothly if the initial trustee cannot serve. This clarity helps families focus on caregiving and daily life rather than disputes over finances, providing a practical, long-term framework for preserving both benefits and relationships.
Begin planning as early as possible so you can structure the trust and related documents before urgent needs arise. Early planning makes it easier to preserve benefit eligibility, establish funding strategies, and coordinate with family caregivers and service providers. Ensure that any actions to transfer assets or designate beneficiaries align with Medi-Cal and SSI rules to avoid unintended disqualifications. Regularly review documents to incorporate changes in benefits law and family circumstances, and keep clear records of trust funding and distributions to support ongoing administration and compliance.
Include a written care plan that outlines the beneficiary’s daily needs, medical providers, support services, and long-term goals. A documented plan helps trustees make distribution decisions consistent with the beneficiary’s best interests and provides continuity among caregivers. Coordinate the trust plan with physicians, therapists, social workers, and education professionals to ensure that trust resources effectively support the beneficiary’s needs. Periodic updates to the plan will keep the trust aligned with changing medical and lifestyle requirements.
Families consider a special needs trust to preserve eligibility for needs-based public benefits while providing additional resources to enhance quality of life. A trust can prevent an inheritance or settlement from disqualifying a beneficiary from Medi-Cal or Supplemental Security Income, while allowing those funds to be used for enrichment and non-covered services. Other reasons include the desire to formalize a plan for long-term care, designate trusted management of assets, and ease the administrative burden on family caregivers by providing a clear framework for financial decisions and distributions.
Another important reason to consider a trust is to reduce potential family conflict by setting expectations and naming a decision-maker for financial distributions. Trusts also protect assets from creditors and provide specific directions for how funds should be used at different life stages. For parents and caregivers concerned about who will manage their loved one’s affairs in the future, including children and contingency trustees in the plan can offer peace of mind and a documented pathway for continuity of care and financial support.
Typical circumstances include when a beneficiary receives an inheritance, settlement, or other lump sum that would exceed benefit resource limits, when a parent wishes to protect assets for a disabled child, or when a family wants to ensure long-term supplemental support without displacing public benefits. Other scenarios are planning for the transition from school to adulthood, coordinating housing or care needs, or providing for ongoing therapies and adaptive equipment. In each case, a trust provides a tailored mechanism to manage funds responsibly while protecting benefit eligibility.
When a beneficiary is set to receive an inheritance or settlement that could push resources above benefit limits, creating a special needs trust can protect those funds while maintaining program eligibility. The trust should be properly structured and funded so distributions are limited to supplemental items that do not count as income for benefits. Handling proceeds through a trust also helps document the intent that funds are for the beneficiary’s long-term needs and prevents family members from unintentionally making transfers or withdrawals that jeopardize support.
Parents often create special needs trusts as part of a broader estate plan to ensure their child will be provided for after they are gone. Including a trust in wills and revocable living trusts allows parents to direct assets into a protective structure and name trustees to manage distributions. This approach enables parents to preserve benefits, designate guardianship preferences, and set forth instructions for education and health care coordination. Planning in advance reduces uncertainty and prepares for a smooth transition in long-term management and support.
If a beneficiary’s care or housing needs are expected to change, a special needs trust can provide flexible funding for transitions such as moving to supported housing, paying for home modifications, or covering specialized transportation and day programs. Trust funds can bridge gaps between what public programs cover and the individual’s unique needs, helping maintain stability during transitions. Advance planning will identify likely future expenses and establish a distribution framework that addresses evolving needs without risking benefit eligibility.
The Law Offices of Robert P. Bergman are available to guide Lakeland Village families through special needs trust planning, document preparation, and trust funding. We provide clear explanations of options, assist in selecting trustees and successor trustees, and coordinate necessary transfers and estate documents. Whether you are beginning the planning process or updating existing arrangements, we focus on practical solutions that protect benefits and improve the beneficiary’s quality of life. Call 408-528-2827 to arrange a consultation and discuss a plan tailored to your family’s needs.
Families come to our firm for careful, responsive planning that balances benefit preservation with meaningful supplemental support. We emphasize clear communication and practical recommendations, ensuring clients understand how trust provisions affect public programs and everyday life. Our approach includes coordinating trust documents with wills, powers of attorney, and health care directives so that the entire estate plan works together. Serving clients across California, we provide guidance tailored to local rules and resources while maintaining an accessible, client-focused process.
We assist with selecting and documenting trustee responsibilities, funding strategies, and contingency plans for successor management. Our goal is to reduce family stress by creating a durable plan that addresses likely scenarios and outlines decision-making procedures. We also help families prepare documentation to support benefit continuation and provide ongoing administration advice so trustees can make informed distribution choices. Regular review and updates are part of our process to adapt the plan as legal and family circumstances change.
Communication and accessibility are priorities; we walk families through each step from initial planning to trust administration with practical guidance and straightforward explanations. We coordinate with financial advisors, care providers, and government agencies as needed to ensure a cohesive approach that reflects your priorities. For residents of Lakeland Village and Riverside County, our firm offers a local perspective combined with broad knowledge of California benefits rules to help families design a plan that balances protection with flexibility.
Our process begins with an in-depth consultation to gather medical, financial, and family information, followed by a clear recommendation on the type of trust and accompanying documents. We draft and explain all paperwork, coordinate funding and asset transfers, and provide guidance for trustee duties and record-keeping. After execution, we offer follow-up meetings to review implementation and make adjustments as needed. This client-focused approach ensures the trust works within benefit rules and aligns with the family’s long-term objectives for care and financial management.
The first step is a thorough meeting to review the beneficiary’s needs, family dynamics, current benefits, assets, and long-term goals. We ask about medical care, service providers, expected sources of funds, and desired uses for trust resources. This information guides the selection of trust type, trustee considerations, and distribution language. An accurate picture of the beneficiary’s situation allows us to design a tailored plan that addresses both immediate concerns and future contingencies while preserving eligibility for means-tested programs.
During the initial assessment, we review current benefit eligibility, income and resource thresholds, and potential triggers that could affect assistance programs. Understanding these limits helps determine how funds should be structured and disbursed to avoid disqualifying the beneficiary. We also identify documentation needed for benefit administrators and discuss strategies for handling expected changes in income or assets. Accurate assessment at the outset prevents common pitfalls that can inadvertently disrupt vital supports.
Part of the first step is determining where trust funds will come from and defining specific goals for their use. Sources might include family contributions, inheritances, settlements, or existing savings. Clear goals inform distribution language—whether funds are intended for housing, therapies, education, or day-to-day supplemental needs. Establishing these priorities early makes drafting the trust more precise and helps trustees make consistent, documented decisions that support the beneficiary’s well-being.
After the initial consultation, we prepare the trust instrument and coordinate complementary documents such as revocable living trusts, pour-over wills, powers of attorney, and advance health care directives. We review the draft with the family to ensure the language reflects their intentions and that trustee powers are clearly defined. If funding involves transfers or beneficiary designations, we provide guidance on how to complete those steps properly. The goal is a cohesive set of documents that integrate the special needs trust into the broader estate plan.
Once drafts are complete, we review each document with the client to explain provisions, trustee duties, and implications for benefits. We coordinate the signing process, ensure notarization where required, and provide instructions for initial trust funding steps. Clients receive copies of finalized documents and a checklist for transferring assets, updating beneficiary designations, and notifying relevant institutions. Clear execution practices reduce the likelihood of administrative issues during later trust administration.
Funding the trust is essential to make the plan effective. This may involve titling accounts in the name of the trust, assigning life insurance or retirement plan proceeds to a trust vehicle such as a retirement plan trust, or coordinating settlement distributions to trust accounts. We help clients understand the documents and transfers required so that assets are properly moved without unintended tax or benefits consequences. Maintaining accurate records of funding is important for trustees and benefit administrators.
After funding and execution, the trustee administers the trust for the beneficiary’s benefit, making distributions in accordance with the trust terms and benefit rules. Ongoing administration includes record-keeping, managing investments prudently, and coordinating with service providers and benefits agencies. Periodic reviews are recommended to update the trust for changes in law, family circumstances, or the beneficiary’s needs. The firm remains available to advise trustees and handle amendments or successor trustee transitions when necessary.
Trustees have a responsibility to maintain detailed records of receipts, expenditures, and distributions to demonstrate compliance with trust terms and benefit program rules. Good record-keeping protects the beneficiary’s eligibility and supports transparent administration within the family. Trustees should keep receipts, invoices, and a ledger of disbursements, and be prepared to explain how distributions further the beneficiary’s supplemental needs. Proper documentation also eases the transition when successor trustees assume management responsibilities.
Legal and benefit program rules change over time, and so do family situations and the beneficiary’s needs. Periodic reviews allow the trust to be updated to reflect new objectives, changes in funding, or shifts in available public programs. If circumstances require, amendments or restatements can clarify trustee powers, update distribution language, or realign the plan with current laws. Ongoing legal support ensures the trust remains effective and responsive to the beneficiary’s evolving needs.
A Special Needs Trust is a legal vehicle that holds assets for someone with disabilities and allows distributions for supplemental needs without disqualifying the beneficiary from means-tested programs. The trust must be drafted so that funds are used for items and services beyond what government benefits provide, such as medical equipment, therapies, transportation, or enrichment activities. Properly administered, the trust prevents lump sums or inheritances from being treated as countable resources that would make the beneficiary ineligible for programs like Supplemental Security Income and Medi-Cal. Because benefit rules are detailed and vary by program, the trust document must provide clear guidance on allowable distributions and name a trustee who understands the relationship between trust payments and public benefits. Having a trust in place helps families coordinate financial support with essential government assistance, ensuring the beneficiary retains access to core benefits while receiving extra support from the trust.
A trustee can be a trusted family member, friend, professional fiduciary, or a trust management entity, and the choice should be guided by the individual’s ability to manage finances responsibly and communicate with caregivers and service providers. The trustee’s role includes managing investments, keeping records, making distributions in line with trust terms, and ensuring distributions do not unintentionally interfere with public benefits. Naming successor trustees provides continuity if the primary trustee cannot serve or steps down. When choosing a trustee, consider availability, financial acumen, impartiality, and willingness to coordinate with government agencies and care professionals. Some families select a close relative for personal knowledge of the beneficiary’s needs while also naming a professional as co-trustee or successor to handle complex financial administration. Clear instructions in the trust document help trustees act consistently with family intentions.
A special needs trust can be funded in various ways, including gifts from family members, inheritances, lawsuit settlements, life insurance proceeds, or transfers from a parent or guardian. Third-party trusts are typically funded by someone other than the beneficiary, while first-party trusts are funded with the beneficiary’s own assets and may require a Medicaid payback provision upon death. It is important to make funding moves carefully to avoid creating countable resources that would impact benefit eligibility. Funding also involves proper titling of accounts, beneficiary designations, or coordination of settlement disbursements directly to the trust. Families should follow specific steps to retitle bank accounts, transfer property, or name the trust as a beneficiary for certain assets. Documenting each funding step and keeping clear records ensures that the trust functions as intended and avoids disputes or administrative complications.
A first-party trust is funded with assets that belong to the disabled person and typically includes a payback clause requiring the state to be reimbursed for Medi-Cal benefits upon the beneficiary’s death. Third-party trusts are funded by someone other than the beneficiary, such as a parent or grandparent, and generally do not require payback to the state, allowing remaining assets to pass to other designated heirs. The selection depends on who provides the assets and the family’s goals for residual distributions. Both types of trusts must be carefully drafted to comply with legal and benefits requirements. First-party trusts are useful when the disabled person has received a lump sum or has personal assets, while third-party trusts are appropriate for parents who wish to leave funds for a child with disabilities without subjecting those funds to state payback. Each structure has different tax and administrative considerations that families should evaluate.
When properly drafted and administered, a special needs trust is designed to preserve eligibility for Medi-Cal and Supplemental Security Income by ensuring that trust-owned assets are not treated as countable resources. The timing and method of funding the trust, as well as the distribution rules, are important factors in maintaining benefits. Trustees must make distributions that supplement rather than replace the benefits provided by public programs to avoid affecting eligibility. Coordination with benefits administrators and meticulous record-keeping are essential to avoid problems. Trustees should retain receipts and documentation for each distribution and be prepared to demonstrate that trust payments were for supplemental items. Regular consultation on changing regulations and diligent administration help maintain uninterrupted access to government benefits.
What happens to trust funds after the beneficiary dies depends on the trust type and its terms. First-party trusts typically include a payback provision requiring remaining funds to be used to reimburse the state for Medi-Cal benefits paid on the beneficiary’s behalf before any leftover assets are distributed to other heirs. Third-party trusts can be structured to distribute remaining assets to family members or other designated beneficiaries without a state payback requirement. The trust document should clearly specify successor beneficiaries and distribution priorities to avoid probate and family disputes. If a pooled trust was used, remaining funds may be retained by the nonprofit after any allowable deductions. Families should consider end-of-life distribution preferences when setting up the trust so that remaining assets are handled according to their wishes.
Whether a special needs trust can pay for housing or rent depends on how the arrangement affects benefit eligibility and whether the payment is considered a countable resource. In some cases, trust funds may be used for housing-related expenses that enhance the beneficiary’s quality of life without displacing basic benefit allowances, such as home modifications, supplemental utility costs, or specialized transportation. Direct payments for room and board may require careful planning to avoid unintended effects on benefits like SSI. Trustees should consult program rules and maintain documentation showing that housing-related payments are consistent with supplemental needs and do not substitute for government-covered services. Carefully structured arrangements and coordination with benefits administrators can allow trust funds to support stable and appropriate living situations while preserving core public benefits.
A trust should be reviewed periodically, typically whenever there are significant changes in the beneficiary’s circumstances, family situation, or relevant laws and benefit rules. Events that warrant a review include changes in medical condition, receipt of new funds such as an inheritance or settlement, changes in household composition, or updates to Medi-Cal or SSI regulations. Regular reviews ensure that the trust remains compliant and aligned with the beneficiary’s needs and family goals. It is also wise to schedule reviews every few years even in the absence of major changes to confirm that contact information, trustee arrangements, and funding remain correct. Periodic updates can address evolving needs, adjust distribution instructions, and clarify successor trustee arrangements, helping maintain continuous and effective support for the beneficiary.
Pooled trusts can be a viable option for families with smaller estates or when a first-party trust is required but individualized management is impractical. Pooled trusts are managed by nonprofit organizations that combine funds for investment purposes while maintaining separate subaccounts for each beneficiary. They often offer professional administration and may be a cost-effective way to provide individualized distributions without the overhead of setting up a standalone trust. Before choosing a pooled trust, review fees, the organization’s policies on allowable distributions, and any state payback requirements. Consider whether the nonprofit’s investment strategy, fee structure, and administrative processes align with your family’s needs. Pooled trusts may simplify administration but come with different trade-offs compared to a privately managed trust, so families should evaluate options carefully.
To start the process, schedule an initial consultation to discuss the beneficiary’s needs, current benefits, assets, and family goals. During that meeting, gather documents such as benefit award letters, recent bank statements, insurance policies, and any relevant medical information. This information helps determine the appropriate type of trust and the best funding strategy to preserve benefits while meeting supplemental needs. After the consultation, the next steps typically include drafting the trust and supporting estate documents, executing those documents with the proper formalities, and arranging for funding and account transfers. Follow-up assistance for trustee training and periodic reviews ensures the plan operates as intended. Contact the Law Offices of Robert P. Bergman at 408-528-2827 to begin planning tailored to your circumstances.
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